Monday, 15 June 2015

Sanskrit Drama


Sanskrit?
Highly literary and poetic, the Sanskrit dramas had an elite audience in mind.  Sanskrit is a highly-inflected, Indo-European language, related to classical Greek and Latin.  It was primarily a literary language employed for documenting the affairs of state and for composing literary art.
Not only was Sanskrit the language of the elite and educated, the Sanskrit dramas are dense with poetic devices, literary, mythic, and historical allusion, and literary devices and ornaments of all sorts.  Furthermore, the stories that the plays dramatize tend to reinforce upper-class authority and values.  At first glance, the Sanskrit dramas seem to be very exclusive.
On the other hand, there isn’t all that much Sanskrit in Sanskrit dramas.
Only the most elite characters in the plays—divine beings, kings, and brahmans—speak Sanskrit.  Other characters, including soldiers, merchants, townspeople, etc., and very nearly all women, speak a variety of colloquial languages referred to, collectively, as Prakrits.  Which means that characters occupying the stage together, and carrying on conversations with each other, are very often speaking different languages.
Imagine a play in which a king and his closest advisors speak Latin, while his queen and lesser members of the court speak Italian, and the merchants and townspeople who conduct business around the capitol  speak Spanish and Romanian.
Sanskrit dramas, therefore, must have appealed to a relatively diverse audience.  The plays include so much Prakrit dialogue that the wider population of people who could not access Sanskrit would, nevertheless, have been able to follow a performance of a so-called Sanskrit drama just fine.
Sanskrit drama emerges in fragments and short pieces beginning in the first century, CE, and continuing to the tenth century. The most commonly read and performed examples of Sanskrit drama include plays by Bhasa, Shudraka, and, especially, Kalidasa.  The work of all three of these playwrights comes within the first three or four centuries of the tradition.
The plays often concern the exploits of the kings and heroes of history.  As with the Greek tragedies, ‘historical’ figures of Sanskrit drama include mythical persons and the subjects of epic poetry.  Supernatural beings of several varieties play important roles in the stories of Sanskrit drama.  Important characters in Sanskrit dramas also come from the middle and lower classes, including soldiers, merchants, and hermits and sages.  Of the two principal types of dramas, the Nataka plays feature stories about kings and divine beings.  The Prakarana plays concern stories that revolve around middle-class characters.
With very, very few exceptions, the three hundred, or so, Sanskrit dramas that we have end happily, with conflicts comfortably resolved.  The king and his wife are reunited.  The king discovers a son.  The girl’s discovery of her royal or divine parentage clears the way to marry into the royal family.  Even an exception like Bhasa’s Urubhangam, which concludes with the morose death of its protagonist, does not affirm the sense of futility or the nihilistic worldview that figures so prominently in Greek tragedy.  Sanskrit drama consistently regards existence as orderly and predictable.  Conflict in the plays occurs as individuals make attempts to act outside of an order sustained, if not established, by divine forces, and all such attempts are redirected so as to bring characters back into their ordained places.  Even so, the plays are not necessarily predictable, since the characters themselves don’t always realize exactly what their ordained places are until they suddenly occupy them.  The king and his wife are supposed to be together.  The king is supposed to have a son.  The girl was royalty all along.
The action of Sanskrit dramas includes precious little action.  Most often, the potentially exciting moments of a drama occur offstage and are related to characters onstage by way of messengers, letters, or eye-witnesses who can see what is happening out of view of the other characters (and out of the view of the audience).  Although the plots commonly involve battles, kidnappings, flying demons, and rampaging elephants, what we get onstage in a Sanskrit drama is dialogue about kidnappings and elephants, and so forth.  Nevertheless, as in many other dramatic traditions around the world, Sanskrit drama creates and sustains tension through the plans that characters lay in dialogue with each other, the obstacles that arise to prevent those plans from coming to fruition, and the ways that characters maneuver to accomplish their aims, anyway.
The dialogue of Sanskrit drama consists of both verse and prose.  Within a single, unified speech, a character may slip out of prose and into verse and back into prose several times.  Dense with figurative speech and imagery, the verses demonstrate the playwright’s poetic skill.  Because the the verse in his play Shakuntala, the playwright Kalidasa, for instance, is, perhaps, regarded in India more as a poet than as a dramatist.
Besides the dramatic literature that survive from the period, the tradition of Sanskrit theatre gives us some practical information about play performance and also a theory about how we experience theatre.
The Natyashastra, an encyclopedic volume dating from between the first and fourth centuries, CE, touches on almost every practical aspect of theatrical art, and it speculates in a theoretical-philosophical way about how theatre affects an audience.  The concept it dubs rasa is still essential to Indian aesthetics.
The following unit examines the work of the best-known Sanskrit playwrights, provides an overview of some representative portions of the Natyashastra, and offers an approach to the complex idea that is rasa.
The Sanskrit Prologue
In production, performances were preceded by elaborate preliminary rituals, collectively known as purvaranga.  The one element of these rites commonly documented by the play scripts themselves is the nandi, a kind of opening prayer consisting of several lines of verse that acknowledge divine authority over the space and time of the production.  Most often, Shiva is the subject of the nandi.  The first piece of text in most Sanskrit plays, then, is the nandi.
What generally follows the nandi is a dramatic prologue, involving a short conversation between the production’s director and an actor or other member of the performing troupe.  These brief conversations serve to introduce the title and author of the play, and may also preview the major themes of the play to follow.  Bhasa’s prologues tend to be very brief and formulaic.  As an example, the prologue of his play Karnabharam consists entirely of the following:
Stage-manager. With these words, my lords and gentlemen, I have to announce to you—But what is that?  I thought I heard a noise just as I was to make my anouncement.  Well, I must see what it is.
(Voice behind the scene.) Ho there, take word to his Highness the King of the Angas.
Stage-manager.  Good, I understand.  A flurried servitor with folded hands brings word to Karna at Duryodhana’s behest that the battle grows tumultuous. (Exit.)
(translation by A. C. Woolner and Lakshman Sarup)
The prologues of Kalidasa, on the other hand, tend to be more elaborate and thematic.  In the prologue to Shakuntala, the director calls an actress to the stage to sing an introductory song for the performance.  The song is so lovely that by the time the actress has finished, the director has forgotten what play the troupe is to present.  The prologue here previews the themes of (weak) memory and reminders that move the play.
As a device, the prologue of Sanskrit dramas provides an interface between the audience and the play.  In the brief prologue from Bhasa’s Karnabharam included above, the ‘stage-manager’ speaks directly to the assembled audience and, then, hears Duryodhana’s messenger speaking from an area behind the stage.  For the stage-manager whose company is producing the performance, the audience to whom the stage-manager speaks is a real audience.  For the ‘stage-manager’ who is a character in Bhasa’s play, Duryodhana’s messenger is real.  The stage-manager, then, occupies a space in between the world of the audience and the world of the play, and he brings the two world’s together in the way he interacts with audience and play.
We might say that the stage-manager in the prologues of Sanskrit dramas serves to facilitate the audience’s transition from their real world into the pretend world of the performance.  Perhaps, the stage-manager helps audiences ‘suspend their disbelief’, so as to engage more fully with the world of the play.
However, such a superficial reading of the prologues and of the stage-manager ignores the fundamentally theatrical worldview that pervades India, as articulated in the Bhagavad Gita.

Wednesday, 25 March 2015


 
 Kalidas-
There are hundreds of languages in the world. However, great and classical literature which people in all countries need to read is found only in a few languages. One such great language is Sanskrit. It is one of the oldest languages. It is the mother of several Indianlanguages such as Hindi, Bengali and Marathi in the North. Kannada, Telugu and other languages in the South have also been nourished by it.
It needs the genius of poets who create literary epics and great thinkers for a language to achieve world-renown. Sanskrit is eminently lucky in this respect. Sages’ celebration of the wonders of nature, the sky, the stars, mountains and rivers, the sun, the moon, the clouds, fire (‘Agni’) and their devout offering of prayers to the Universal Power are all found in the Vedic classics which/are in Sanskrit. Puranas and historical epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharat vividly describe the battle between the good and the evil. They also portray the virtues like devotion to truth, a sense of sacrifice, heroism, cultured living, etc. In Sanskrit there are also beautiful stories of birds and animals like Panchatantra; stories extolling good and basic qualities of wisdom and intelligence. Sanskrit can also justly boast of a rich treasure house of plays, poems and many scientific and philosophical treatises.
A poet who has made a distinct and glorious contribution to this sumptuous Sanskrit literature is Kalidas. He has pictured in his works the beauty in life and pondered upon how we can give pleasure to others by generous and graceful behavior. His portrayals are vivid and heart- warming; his word power is unique. In a few words he is capable of bringing out the entire meaning intended. His writings touchingly show up a noble, meaningful mode of life for the people to pursue. His works are an intellectual treat to thinkers and common readers alike.
A Great Scholar and Poet
Who is this Kalidas ? When did he live and where in India was he residing? Much discussion has taken place for a long time now about his life and times. Not many queries on this score have elicited definite answers. Several legends have sprouted around him.
According to one such popular legend, Kalidas wasn’t always so wise and learned. In fact, there was a time he was considered to be one of the stupidest people in the kingdom!
One sunny day, Kalidas was sitting on a branch of a tree, trying to saw it off. But the dimwitted man was sitting on the wrong end of the branch, so when he finally sawed through the branch, down he tumbled! This act of sheer stupidity was observed by some shrewd pundits minister passing by.
Now these pundits wanted to play a trick on the arrogant princess, to teach her a lesson. She was determined to marry someone who would defeat her in a debate about the scriptures. The princess had heaped considerable abuse on them over a period of time, and they were determined to extract their revenge. So, when they chanced upon Kalidas, they decided to present him to the queen as a suitable match for her.
In order to conceal his stupidity, the pundits asked Kalidas to pretend that he was a great sage, who was observing a vow of silence. Kalidas readily agreed, and they presented him to the queen, saying that Kalidas would only communicate by way of gestures. When the queen asked Kalidas a few questions to test his intelligence, Kalidas gesticulated wildly and the astute pundits ‘interpreted’ these gestures as extremely witty answers and retorts. The princess was suitably impressed, and the couple was married without much delay.
Kalidas’s stupidity could be concealed for only so long, and the night of the wedding Kalidas blurted out something inane. The princess realized that she had married a prize fool. Furious, she threw him out of her palace, and her life.
The dejected Kalidas wandered around, till he came to the bank of the river. He contemplated taking his life when he suddenly saw some women washing clothes on the edge of the river bank. He observed that the stones which the women were pounding with clothes, were smooth and rounded, while the other stones were rough and ragged. This observation hit him like a thunderbolt, and it dawned upon him that if stones could be worn through and change their shape by being pounded upon by clothes, then why couldn’t his thick brains change, by being pounded upon by knowledge!
Kalidas thus grew determined to become the wisest and most learned man in the country, and to achieve this end he started indulging in intellectual pastimes, reading, meditating and praying to his goddess Kali to grant him divine knowledge. His wish was fulfilled.
This is one of the most popular legends about Kalidas. There are several other stories but they lack authenticity.
It appears Kalidas was at the court of emperor Vikramaditya. The place and time of this king are also not definite. But it can be said with some certainty that Kalidas lived before the 6th century A.D., i.e., about 1400 years ago. But when exactly he lived before the 6th century is not firmly established. Though a deep affection for the city of Ujjain is discernible in his works, it cannot be said with certainty that he lived there. But we can assume that, wherever he may have been born, he had lived at Ujjain.
Kalidas, however, had good knowledge of the whole of Bharat. In his poem ‘Meghaduta’, his descriptions of mountains and rivers and cities and villages stretching from Ramagiri in Central India up to Alakanagari in the Himalayas are very beautiful. In another epic poem ‘Raghuvamsha’, Kalidas, while portraying the conquests of emperor Raghu, describes the places and peoples, their modes of living, food-habits and trades and professions, rivers and mountains in almost the whole country — Assam, Bengal and Utkal in the East; Pandya and Kerala in the South and Sind, Gandhara and other places in the North-west.
Reading these pen-pictures, one cannot help but conclude that the poet must have had a personal knowledge of these areas. In short, he must have traveled widely across the length and breadth of the land, seen those places, talked to the people and studied their modes of living.
Kalidas possessed that distinct intellect which makes one a great poet. He was a scholar and his works display his poetic genius as well as scholarship. Also they are marked by a belief of what is good in life and people’s noble goals of life. He could describe the rich and wealthy life of a royal palace and the serene, simple and peaceful life at a hermitage with equal understanding. He could, likewise, describe the joys of the marital life of a man and his spouse as well as their pangs of separation. He creates scenes of a serious and thoughtful nature as also hilarious scenes of light comedy. In his works is found an excellent combination of art-consciousness, unmatched wordpower and an unparalleled capacity for vivid portrayals.
The Great works by Kalidas
Kalidas wrote seven works. ‘Kumarasambhava’ and ‘Raghuvamsha’ are his two epic poems. ‘Malavikagnimitra’, ‘Vikramorvashiya’ and ‘Abhijnana Shakuntala’ are his celebrated plays. ‘Meghaduta’ and ‘Ritusamhara’ are also poetical works of great distinction.
Kumarasambhava
One of Kalidas’s greatest works is ‘Kumarasambhava’. Critics maintain that Kalidas wrote only the first eight chapters of the epic poem. The work describes the marriage of Lord Shiva and his consort Parvati. It begins with a fine description of that giant among mountains, the Himalaya.
Kalidas’s poem gives us a vivid picture of what a good, meaningful life a man could and should lead as propounded by our learned ancestors.
Raghuvamsha
Kalidas's second epic is 'Raghuvamsha'. There are nineteen chapters ('sargas') in this poem. The epic describes the history of the kings Dileepa, Raghu, Aja, Dasharatha, Sri Rama, Lava and Kusha. It also deals briefly with the twenty kings from Nala up to Agnivarna.In thebeginning, the poet extols the fine qualities of the kings of Raghu dynasty.
'Raghuvamsha' depicts our ancient, historical culture and tradition. Our ancestors had discussed in detail about such matters as to who could be a good ruler, who is a man of 'tapas' (penance), how one should lead a good, purposeful life and the like. The poet has portrayed diverse characters like Vashishta, Dileepa, Raghu, Aja and others. Agnivarna is an example of a king who could be termed as 'depraved'.
Malavikagnimitra
'Malavikagnimitra' is Kalidas's first play. The author shows his humility and is   uncertain whether people would accepts play. He pleads 'Puranamityeva Na sadhu   sarvam,Na chapikavyamnavamityavadyam' (Everything old is not good, nor is every thing knew badly). There may be some thing, which may not be of much use in the  old, and the new may also be good. The theme of the play is the love-story of Agnimitra and Malavika.
Vikramor-vashiya
Kalidas's second play 'Vikramor -vashiya' is about the loves and tribulations of king Pururava and the heavenly damsel 'Urvashi'.
Abhijnana Shakuntala
'Abhijnana Shakuntala' is Kalidas's greatest creation. This literary masterpiece has been translated into several languages around the world. The story of Shakuntala appears in the 'Adiparva' chapter of the epic Mahabharat.
Meghaduta
'Meghaduta' is a beautiful love-lyric. A 'Yaksha', who is forced to be separated from his mistress for a year, sends her a message. The lady is residing at Alakanagari. 'Go and tell her that I told so', instructs the Yaksha to the cloud who becomes his messenger. The very fact that a cloud ('Megha') is chosen to be a messenger of love is something unique. The poet fascinatingly describes the travels of the cloud from Ramagiri to Alakanagari. The rivers, hills and mountains, cities and towns, vast fields, farmers' daughters as well as girls in the cities, the birds and the bees — are all described by the poet vividly. It is a total picture of a beautiful world. His descriptions of Alakanagari, the Yaksha's house and the garden around, theYaksha's wife playing the Veena and her grace and beauty are captivating.
Ritusamhara
'Ritusamhara' is a somewhat small-scale poetical creation depicting the six seasons. However, it is equally appealing. The poet here sees beauty in everything. Each different facet of nature he sees in each of the seasons fascinates him; it is a romantic sight.
Summary of the life and work of Kalidas
In sum, it gives us great aesthetic pleasure to read Kalidas's works. His descriptions enthrall us. With him we are in the company-cultured a highly civilized, cultured personality. It is like a flower which, in bloom, spreads its fragrance all around. And a man's mature, ripened mind and intellect brings pleasure to those around him. In Kalidas's creations, we enter the world of people pure in mind and body and who are graceful. We learn here the manner in which man's nature can reach high, moral levels. It pleases us deeply to come into contact with characters like Parvati, Dileepa, Raghu, Aja, Shakuntala, Dushyanta and Kanva. It is for this wonderful experience that we as well as people in other countries read Kalidas.

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Tuesday, 24 March 2015

मुद्राराक्षस-



मुद्राराक्षसविशाखदत्त का सुप्रसिद्ध संस्कृत नाटक है जिसमें चाणक्य और चन्द्रगुप्त संबंधी ख्यात वृत्त के आधार पर चाणक्य की राजनीतिक सफलताओं का अपूर्व विश्लेषण मिलता है। इस कृति की रचना पूर्ववर्ती संस्कृत-नाट्य परंपरा से सर्वथा भिन्न रूप में हुई है-लेखक ने भावुकता, कल्पना आदि के स्थान पर जीवन-संघर्ष के यथार्थ अंकन पर बल दिया है। इस महत्वपूर्ण नाटक को हिंदी में सर्वप्रथम अनूदित करने का श्रेय भारतेंदु हरिश्चंद्र को है। यों उनके बाद कुछ अन्य लेखकों ने भी इस कृति का अनुवाद किया, किंतु जो ख्याति भारतेंदु हरिश्चंद्र के अनुवाद को प्राप्त हुई, वह किसी अन्य को नहीं मिल सकी। इतना होने पर भी भारतेंदु द्वारा अनूदित इस कृति के प्रामाणिक संस्करण का अभाव खटकता रहा है। प्रस्तुत संस्करण में विद्वान संपादक ने इस अभाव की पूर्ति के साथ ही एक तो भूमिका मेंमुद्राराक्षसकी सर्वागीण आलोचना की है और दूसरे, परिशिष्ट भाग में कृतिगत काव्यांशों की समीक्षात्मक व्याख्या देते हुए कुछ अन्य उपयोगी तथ्यों का संयोजन किया है। हिन्दी में प्राचीन काव्य-ग्रंथों के अनेक प्रामाणिक संस्करण उपलब्ध हैं, किंतु गद्य-ग्रंथ के पाठ-संपादन की दिशा में यह पहला निष्ठापूर्ण प्रयत्न है जो हिंदी-विद्वानों द्वारा संपादित नाटकों की बँधी-बँधाई परिपाटी से सर्वथा भिन्न है।
आमुख-
मुद्राराक्षसविशाखदत्त का सुप्रसिद्ध संस्कृत-नाटक है, जिसमें चाणक्य और चन्द्रगुप्त सम्बन्धी ख्यात वृत्त के आधार पर चाणक्य की राजनीतिक सफलताओं का अपूर्व विश्लेषण मिलता है। विशाखदत्त अथवा विशाखदेव का काल-निर्णय अभी नहीं हो पाया है। वैसे, वे भास, कालिदास, हर्ष और भवभूति के परवर्ती नाटककार थे और प्रस्तुत नाटक की रचना अनुमानतः छठी से नवीं शताब्दी के मध्य हुई थी। सामन्त वटेश्वरदत्त के पौत्र और महाराज पृथु अथवा भास्करदत्त के पुत्र होने के नाते उनका राजनीति से प्रत्यक्ष सम्बन्ध था, फलतःमुद्राराक्षसका राजनीतिप्रधान नाटक होना आकस्मिक संयोग नहीं है, वरन् इसमें लेखक की रूचि भी प्रतिफलित है। विशाखदत्त की दो अन्य रचनाओं-देवी चन्द्रगुप्तम्, राघवानन्द नाटकम्-का भी उल्लेख मिलता है, किन्तु उनकी प्रसिद्धि का मूलाधारमुद्राराक्षसही है।
देवी चन्द्रगुप्तम्का उल्लेख रामचन्द्र-गुणचन्द्र नेनाट्यदर्पणमें, भोज नेश्रृंगारप्रकाशमें और अभिनवगुप्त नेनाटकशास्त्रकी टीका में किया है। यह नाटक ध्रुवदेवी और चन्द्रगुप्त द्वितीय के ऐतिहासिक वृत्त पर आधारित है, किन्तु अभी इसके कुछ अंश ही प्राप्त हुए हैं।राघवानन्द नाटकम्की रचना राम-चरित्र को लेकर की गई होगी, किन्तु इसके भी एक-दो स्फुट छन्द ही प्राप्त हुए हैं।

मुद्राराक्षसकी रचना पूर्ववर्ती संस्कृत-नाट्यपरम्परा से सर्वथा भिन्न रूप में हुई है। वैसे,विशाखदत्त भारतीय नाटयशास्त्र से सुपरिचित थे और इसी कारण उन्हेंमुद्राराक्षसमेंकार्यकी एकता का निर्वाह करने में अद्भुत सफलता प्राप्त हुई है, यद्यपि घटना-कम की व्यापकता को देखते हुए यह उपलब्धि सन्दिग्ध हो सकती थी। किन्तु पूर्ववर्ती लेखकों द्वारा निर्धारित प्रतिमानों का यथावत् अनुकरण भी उन्हें अभीष्ट नहीं था। इसीलिए उन्होंने भावुकता, कल्पना आदि के आश्रय द्वारा कथानक को अतिरिक्त जीवन-संघर्ष में प्राप्त होने वाली सफलता-असफलता का यथार्थमूलक चित्रण किया है। उन्होंने कथानक को शुद्ध ऐतिहासिक पृष्ठभूमि प्रदान की है, स्वच्छन्दतावादी तत्वों पर उनका बल नहीं रहा है। आभिजात्यवादी दृष्टिकोण केवल कथा-संयोजन और चरित्र-चत्रिण में दृष्टिगत होता है, अपितु उनकी सुस्पष्ट तथा सशक्त पद-रचना भी इसी प्रवृत्ति की देन है। इस सन्दर्भ में यह भी उल्लेखनीय है कि जिस प्रकार मल्लिनाथ की व्याख्याओं के अभाव में कालिदास के कृतित्व का अनुशीलन अपूर्ण होगा, उसी प्रकारमुद्राराक्षसपर ढुंढिराज की टीका भी प्रसिद्ध है।

मुद्राराक्षसको हिन्दी में सर्वप्रथम अनुदित करने का श्रेय भारतेन्दु हरिश्चन्द्र को है। प्रस्तुत संस्करण को खड्गविलास प्रेस बाँकीपुर से 1925 ई० में प्रकाशित आठवीं आवृत्ति के आधार पर सम्पादित किया गया है। उक्त संस्करण कोक्षत्रिय-पत्रिकाके सम्पादक तथा भारतेन्दु जी के मित्र महाराजकुमार बाबू रामदीन सिंह ने प्रकाशित किया था, अतः इसकी प्रामाणिकता असन्दिग्ध है। वर्तनी की दृष्टि से दो-चार परिवर्तन करने के अतिरिक्त मैंने प्रस्तुत पाठ को अविकल, उक्त मूल प्रति के अनुरूप रखा है। नाटक के स्वच्छ मुद्रण के लिए पात्रों के संवादों, रंग-संकेतों आदि को भी भारतेन्दुयुगीन परिपाटी के अनुसार मुद्रित करके भिन्न व्यवस्था दी गई है, किन्तु ऐसे स्थलों पर मूल पाठ को नहीं बदला गया है। भारतेन्दु ने मूल नाटक का अनुवाद करते समय नाटक के कुछ स्थलों को स्पष्ट करने के लिए पाद-टिप्पणियाँ दी थीं, जिन्हें मैंने यथावत् उद्धत किया है।

विश्वास है कि प्रस्तुत आकार-प्रकार मेंमुद्राराक्षसका यह संस्करण सुधी जनों का ध्यान आकृष्ट करेगा।
मुद्राराक्षसः समीक्षा-
मुद्राराक्षससंस्कृत के प्रसिद्ध नाटककार विशाखदत्त की रचना है, जिसमें इतिहास और राजनीति का सुन्दर समन्वय प्रस्तुत किया गया है। इसमें नन्दवंश के नाश, चन्द्रगुप्त के राज्यारोहण, राक्षस के सक्रिय विरोध, चाणक्य की राजनीति विषयक सजगता और अन्ततः राक्षस द्वारा चन्द्रगुप्त के प्रभुत्व की स्वीकृति का उल्लेख हुआ है। इसमें साहित्य और राजनीति के तत्त्वों का मणिकांचन योग मिलता है, जिसका कारण सम्भवतः यह है कि विशाखदत्त का जन्म राजकुल में हुआ था। वे सामन्त बटेश्वरदत्त के पौत्र और महाराज पृथु के पुत्र थे।मुद्राराक्षसकी कुछ प्रतियों के अनुसार वे महाराज भास्करदत्त के पुत्र थे। इस नाटक के रचना-काल के विषय में तीव्र मतभेद हैं, अधिकांश विद्धान इसे चौथी-पाँचवी शती की रचना मानते हैं, किन्तु कुछ ने इसे सातवीं-आठवीं शती की कृति माना है। संस्कृत की भाँति हिन्दी में भीमुद्राराक्षसके कथानक को लोकप्रियता प्राप्त हुई है, जिसका श्रेय भारतेन्दु हरिश्चन्द्र को है।

भारतेन्दु हरिश्चंद्र नेसत्य हरिश्चन्द्रं’ (1875ई०), ‘श्री चन्द्रावली’ (1876), ‘भारत दुर्दशा’ (1876-1880 के मध्य), ‘नीलदेवी’ (1881) आदि मौलिक नाटकों की रचना के अतिरिक्त संस्कृत-नाटकों के अनुवाद की ओर भी ध्यान दिया था।मुद्राराक्षसका अनुवाद उन्होंने 1878 0 में किया था। इसके पूर्व वे संस्कृत-रचनाचौरपंचाशिकाके बंगला-संस्करण काविद्यासुन्दर’(1868) शीर्षक से, कृष्ण मिश्र के प्रबोधचन्द्रोदयके त़ृतीय अंक कापाखंड विडम्बन’ (1872) शीर्षक से, और राजशेखर कृत प्राकृत-कृतिसट्टककाकर्पूर-मंजरी’ (1875-76) शीर्षक से अनुवाद कर चुके थे। इन अनुवादों में उन्होंने भावानुवाद की पद्धित अपनाई है, फलतः इन्हें नाटयरूपान्तर कहना अधिक उपयुक्त होगा। नाटक के प्रस्तावना, भरतवाक्य आदि स्थलों को उन्होंने प्रायः मौलिक रूप में प्रस्तुत किया है। इसी प्रकार शब्दानुवाद की प्रवृत्ति का आश्रम लेकर चरित्र-व्यंजना में पर्याप्त स्वतन्त्र दृष्टिकोण रखा गया है। यही कारण है किमुद्राराक्षसमें अनुवाद की शुष्कता के स्थान पर मौलिक विचारदृष्टि और भाषा-प्रवाह को प्रायः लक्षित किया जा सकता है। नाटकगत काव्यांश में यह प्रवृत्ति और भी स्पष्ट रूप में लक्षित होती है। प्रस्तुत लेख में अनुवादक की सफलता-असफलता पर विचार करके भारतेन्दु कृत अनुवाद के आधार पर मुद्राराक्षस का मूल्यांकन किया जाएगा जिसमें विशाखदत्त के कृतित्व की समीक्षा ही विशेषतः अभीष्ट होगी।

कथानक-
मुद्राराक्षसकी कथावस्तु प्रख्यात है। इस नाटक के नामकरण का आधार यह घटना है-अपनी मुद्रा को अपने ही विरूद्ध प्रयुक्त होते हुए देखकर राक्षस का स्तब्ध अथवा विवश हो जाना। इसमें चन्द्रगुप्त के राज्यारोहण के उपरान्त चाणक्य द्वारा राक्षस की राजनीतिक चालों को विफल कर देने की कथा को सात अंकों में सुचारू रूप में व्यक्त किया गया है। नाटककार ने चाणक्य औऱ राक्षस की योजना-प्रतियोजनाओं को पूर्ण राजनीतिक वैदग्ध्य के साथ उपस्थापित किया है। उन्होंने नाटकगत घटनाकम के आयोजन में स्वाभाविकता, जिज्ञासा और रोचकता की ओर उपयुक्त ध्यान दिया है। तत्कालीन राजनीतिज्ञों द्वारा राजतंत्र के संचालन के लिए किस प्रकार के उपायों का आश्रय लिया जाता था। इसका नाटक में रोचक विवरण मिलता है। चाणक्य के सहायकों ने रूचि-अरूचि अथवा स्वतन्त्र इच्छा-शक्ति की चिन्ता करते हुए अपने लिए निर्दिष्ट कार्यों का जिस तत्परता से निर्वाह किया, वह कार्य सम्बन्धी एकता का उत्तम उदाहरण है। घटनाओं की धारावाहिकता इस नाटक का प्रशंसनीय गुण है, क्योंकि षड्यन्त्र-प्रतिषड्यंत्रों की योजना में कहीं भी व्याघात लक्षित नहीं होता। यद्यपि चाणक्य की कुटिल चालों का वर्णन होने से इसका कथानक जटिल है, किन्तु नाटककार ने इसे पूर्वापर क्रम-समन्वित रखने में अद्भुत सफलता प्राप्त की है। इसमें कार्यावस्थाओं, अर्थ-प्रकृतियों सन्धियों और वृत्तियों का नाटयशास्त्रविहित प्रयोग हुआ है।
कार्यावस्थाए-
भारतीय आचार्यों ने नाटक ने कथा-विकास की पांच अवस्थाएँ मानी हैं-प्रारम्भ, प्रयत्न, प्राप्त्याशा, नियताप्ति, फलागम। नाटक का आरम्भ रूचिर और सुनियोजित होना चाहिए, क्योंकि नाटक की परवर्ती घटनाओं की सफलता इसी पर निर्भर करती है।मुद्राराक्षसमें निपुणक द्वारा चाणक्य को राक्षस की मुद्रा देने तक की कथाप्रारम्भके अन्तर्गत आएगी।प्रयत्नअवस्था के अन्तर्गत इन घटनाओं का समावेश किया जा सकता है-चाणक्य द्वारा राक्षस और मलयकेतु में विग्रह कराने की चेष्टा, शकटदास को सूली देने का मिथ्या आयोजन, सिद्धार्थक द्वारा राक्षस का बिश्वासपात्र बनकर उसे धोखा देना आदि।प्राप्त्याशाकी योजना के लिए नाटककार ने चन्द्रगुप्त और चाणक्य के छदम विरोध, राक्षस द्वारा कुसुमपुर पर आक्रमण की योजना आदि घटनाओं द्वारा राक्षस का उत्कर्ष वर्णित किया है, किन्तु साथ ही कूटनीतिज्ञ चाणक्य की योजनाओं का भी वर्णन हुआ है। चाणक्य द्वारा राक्षस और मलयकेतु में विग्रह करा देने और राक्षस की योजनाओं को विफल कर देने की घटनाएँनियताप्तिके अन्तर्गत आती है। छठे-सातवें अंकों मेंफलागमकी सिद्धि के लिए राक्षस के आत्म- समर्पण की पृष्ठभूमि प्रस्तुत करते हुए उसके द्वारा चन्द्रगुप्त के अमात्य-पद की स्वीकृति का उल्लेख हुआ है। उक्त अवस्थाओं का निरूपण नाटकार ने जितनी और स्वच्छता से किया है, वह प्रशंसनीय है।

अर्थ-प्रकृतियाँ-
कथानक ने सम्यक, विकास के लिए भारतीय आचार्यों ने कार्यावस्थाओं की भाँति पाँच अर्थ-प्रकृतियाँ भी निर्धारित की हैं-बीज, बिन्दु, पताका, प्रकरी, कार्य। इनमें से पताकाके अन्तर्गत मुख्य प्रासंगिक कथा को प्रस्तुत किया जाता है औरप्रकरीसे अभिप्राय गौण प्रासंगिक कथाओं के समावेश से है। किन्तु, कथानक के सम्यक् विकास के लिए प्रासंगिक कथाओं और आधिकारिक कथा का सन्तुलित निर्वाह आवश्यक है।मुद्राराक्षसमें चाणक्य द्वारा राक्षस को अपने पक्ष में मिलाने का निश्चय कथावस्तु कीबीजहै. जिसकी अभिव्यक्ति प्रथम अंक में चाणक्य की उक्ति में हुई हैः ‘‘जब तक राक्षस नहीं पकड़ा जाता तब तक नन्दों के मारने से क्या और चन्द्रगुप्त को राज्य मिलने से ही क्या ?.... इससे उसके पकड़ने में हम लोगों को निरूद्यम रहना अच्छा नहीं।’’ चाणक्य आदि का मलयकेतु के आश्रम में चले जाना बीजन्यासअथवा बीज का आरम्भ है। बिन्दुके अन्तर्गत इन घटनाओँ की गणना की जा सकती है-निपुणक द्वारा चाणक्य को राक्षस की मुद्रा देना, शकटदास से पत्र लिखवाना, चाणक्य द्वारा चन्दनदास को बन्दी बनाने की आज्ञा देना। नाटक की फल-सिद्धि में सिद्धार्थक और भागुरायण द्वारा किए गए प्रयन्तपताकाके अन्तर्गत गण्य हैं।प्रकरीका आयोजनमुद्राराक्षसके तृतीय अंक के अन्त और चतुर्थ अंक के प्रारम्भ में किया गया है-चाणक्य और चन्द्रगुप्त में मिथ्या कलह और राक्षस तक इसकी सूचना पहुंचना इसका उदाहरण है। राक्षस द्वारा चन्द्रगुप्त का मंत्रित्व स्वीकार करके आत्मसमर्पण कर देनाकार्यनाम्नी अर्थ-प्रकृति हैः अवस्थाओं के अन्तर्गत इसी को फलागम की संज्ञा दी जाती है।